Volume One -> E. Resisting Oppressive, Dictatorial, Military or Authoritarian Rule -> E. I. Africa - Sub-Saharan -> E. I.2. Resisting Repressive and Authoritarian Regimes -> E. I.2.1. Popular Movements for Multiparty Democracy: 1988-1992
E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews
The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, ed. Olukoshi, Adebayo, Uppsala, Nordiska Afikrainstitutet, 1998 , pp. 328

Contributors assess the efforts and problems of oppositions in difficult circumstances, and also consider issues of leadership and organization. The book includes case studies of Kenya, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa and Zimbabwe.
Bratton, Michael; van de Walle, Nicolas Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transition in Comparative Perspective, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997 , pp. 333

A broad-ranging analysis by two experts in the field, drawing on the democratization literature, but focused on African realities.
Democracy in Africa: Progress and Retreat, ed. Diamond, Larry; Plattner, Marc, Baltimore MD, John Hopkins Press, 2010 , pp. 360

Collection of relevant articles in the Journal of Democracy.
Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty, ed. Gros, Jean-Germain, Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 162

Contributors to this book include democracy activists as well as scholars, who look critically at the process of democratization in: Malawi, Cameroon, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana and Gabon. The focus is not on institutions but on leadership, and also on the role of the military and churches in the reform process.
Conflict and Democracy in Africa, ed. Joseph, Richard, Boulder CO, Lynne Rienner, 1999 , pp. 527

Wide-ranging collection of comparative essays on democratic transitions, the state and economic and social factors. Considers developments since the early 1990s and degrees of democracy achieved (in Benin and Zambia), continuing obstacles to democracy and ‘second elections’.
Nugent, Paul Africa Since Independence: A Comparative History, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004 , pp. 620

especially ch. 9 ‘Democracy Rediscovered: Popular Protest, Elite mobilization and the Return of Multipartyism’, pp. 368-433.
Joseph, Richard Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom, Vol. 2, issue 1 (Fall), 1991 , pp. 11-25

Lemarchand, Rene Africa’s Troubled Transitions, Vol. 3, issue 4 (Fall), 1993 , pp. 98-109

Ihonvbere, Julius Where is the Third Wave? A Critical Evaluation of Non-Transitions to Democracy, Vol. 43, issue 4 (Oct-Dec), 1996 , pp. 343-377

Websites recommended

Africa Since Independence: A Comparative History Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan, 2004

especially ch. 9 ‘Democracy Rediscovered: Popular Protest, Elite mobilization and the Return of Multipartyism’, pp. 368-433.
Africa: The Rebirth of Political Freedom , 1991
Africa’s Troubled Transitions , 1993
Conflict and Democracy in Africa Boulder CO Lynne Rienner, 1999

Wide-ranging collection of comparative essays on democratic transitions, the state and economic and social factors. Considers developments since the early 1990s and degrees of democracy achieved (in Benin and Zambia), continuing obstacles to democracy and ‘second elections’.
Democracy in Africa: Progress and Retreat Baltimore MD John Hopkins Press, 2010

Collection of relevant articles in the Journal of Democracy.
Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transition in Comparative Perspective Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1997

A broad-ranging analysis by two experts in the field, drawing on the democratization literature, but focused on African realities.
Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998

Contributors to this book include democracy activists as well as scholars, who look critically at the process of democratization in: Malawi, Cameroon, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana and Gabon. The focus is not on institutions but on leadership, and also on the role of the military and churches in the reform process.
The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa Uppsala Nordiska Afikrainstitutet, 1998

Contributors assess the efforts and problems of oppositions in difficult circumstances, and also consider issues of leadership and organization. The book includes case studies of Kenya, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa and Zimbabwe.
Where is the Third Wave? A Critical Evaluation of Non-Transitions to Democracy , 1996
E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements

Before the ‘third wave’ of democratization, there was a background of popular protest in many African countries – especially in an urban context – by students, workers, professionals and, sometimes, civil servants, in response to economic and other issues. These protests included demonstrations, strikes and boycotts, as well as riots.

Gifford, Paul African Christianity: Its Public Role, London, C. Hurst, 1998 , pp. 368

Christian Churches have been important in quite a few African movements. This book analyses different churches – Catholic, Protestant (mainstream), Evangelical, Pentecostal and Independent – and their beliefs, and also assesses their role in the emerging of civil society. Case studies of four countries: Ghana, Uganda, Zambia and Cameroon.
Popular Struggles for Democracy, ed. Anyang' Nyong'o, Peter, London, Zed Books, 1987 , pp. 288

Contributors provide case studies of Morocco, Uganda, People’s Republic of Congo, South Africa, Ghana, Liberia, Kenya and Swaziland.
African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy, ed. Mamdani, Mahmood; Wamba-dia-Wamba, Ernest, Dakar, Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA), 1995 , pp. 636

Covers very wide range of ‘movements’, including trade unions, religious and gender groupings potentially relevant to nonviolent action, but also ‘mafias’. Embraces the whole of Africa.

Websites recommended

African Christianity: Its Public Role London C. Hurst, 1998

Christian Churches have been important in quite a few African movements. This book analyses different churches – Catholic, Protestant (mainstream), Evangelical, Pentecostal and Independent – and their beliefs, and also assesses their role in the emerging of civil society. Case studies of four countries: Ghana, Uganda, Zambia and Cameroon.
African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy Dakar Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA), 1995

Covers very wide range of ‘movements’, including trade unions, religious and gender groupings potentially relevant to nonviolent action, but also ‘mafias’. Embraces the whole of Africa.
Popular Struggles for Democracy London Zed Books, 1987

Contributors provide case studies of Morocco, Uganda, People’s Republic of Congo, South Africa, Ghana, Liberia, Kenya and Swaziland.
E. I.2.1.a. Movements for Multi-Party Democracy in English-Speaking Countries

Very different conditions prevailed within the various Anglophone countries in East, West, Central and Southern Africa, and therefore the development of multi-party parliamentary democracy (and how far authoritarian government and/or extensive corruption flourished despite the growth of opposition parties) also varied considerably. There were popular protests and demands for political change in a number of countries around 1990 – five of which are covered below.

In addition, a strong women’s movement, which had a significant impact later in the 1990s in securing greater gender political equality, emerged in Uganda – see:

In Botswana women also began to mobilize, and the San (Bushmen) became active in demanding their rights Botswana had been a relatively stable country, in which the ruling party contested and won multi-party elections, but in 1995, when protests by school and university students were violently suppressed, the Trade Unions, the Coalition of Women’s NGOs and the Catholic Church sided with the students. See:

Tripp, Aili Women and Politics in Uganda, Kampala and Wisconsin, James Currey, Fountain Publishers and the University of Wisconsin Press, 2000 , pp. 336

Good, Kenneth Towards Popular Participation in Botswana, Vol. 34, issue 1, 1996 , pp. 101-129

Press, Robert Peaceful Resistance in Contemporary Africa: Nonviolent Social Movements in Kenya, Sierra Leone and Liberia, Paper presented at the September 2-5, 2010 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association,Washington, D.C., , pp. smaller than 0

Press compares peaceful civil resistance in Kenya, Sierra Leone and Liberia to explore the impact of different levels of repression. In Kenya increasing open confrontation with the regime from the 1980s led to a 'culture of resistance' and the ousting of the ruling party in the election of 2002. In Sierra Leone activists faced both repression and the impact of the civil war. In Liberia, where repression was harshest, there was nevertheless resistance by journalists, women, students, the Catholic Church and others to both Samuel Doe and later Charles Taylor.

See also: ‘Civil Resistance of Ordinary People against Brutal Regimes in Africa: Cases of Sierra Leone, Liberia and Kenya’, International Center on Nonviolent Conflict.

https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/civil-resistance-of-ordinary-people-against-brutal-regimes-in-africa-cases-of-sierra-leone-liberia-and-kenya/

This link offers a 56-minute video and transcript of the webinar led by Robert Press on the same topic.

Websites recommended

Peaceful Resistance in Contemporary Africa: Nonviolent Social Movements in Kenya, Sierra Leone and Liberia , 2010

Press compares peaceful civil resistance in Kenya, Sierra Leone and Liberia to explore the impact of different levels of repression. In Kenya increasing open confrontation with the regime from the 1980s led to a 'culture of resistance' and the ousting of the ruling party in the election of 2002. In Sierra Leone activists faced both repression and the impact of the civil war. In Liberia, where repression was harshest, there was nevertheless resistance by journalists, women, students, the Catholic Church and others to both Samuel Doe and later Charles Taylor.

See also: ‘Civil Resistance of Ordinary People against Brutal Regimes in Africa: Cases of Sierra Leone, Liberia and Kenya’, International Center on Nonviolent Conflict.

https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/civil-resistance-of-ordinary-people-against-brutal-regimes-in-africa-cases-of-sierra-leone-liberia-and-kenya/

This link offers a 56-minute video and transcript of the webinar led by Robert Press on the same topic.
Towards Popular Participation in Botswana , 1996
Women and Politics in Uganda Kampala and Wisconsin James Currey, Fountain Publishers and the University of Wisconsin Press, 2000
E. I.2.1.a.i. Malawi and Zambia: Opposition Leads to Regime Change

Two countries that had waged successful unarmed struggle for independence from the white-dominated Central African Federation (see Section B), Zambia and Malawi, also experienced effective campaigns to restore multi-party democracy and to change their leaders through elections – Zambia was a forerunner of the ‘third wave’ of democratization in English-speaking Africa. Church bodies as well as trade unionists and students played a significant role in both cases: see Paul Nugent, Africa Since Independence: A Comparative History (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) , pp. 402-407.
E. I.2.1.a.i. - Zambia
Bratton, Michael Economic Crisis and Political Realignment in Zambia, In Jennifer A. Widner, Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, Baltimore MD, John Hopkins University Press, 1994 , pp. 320 , pp. 101-128

Rakner, Lise Trade Unions in Processes of Democratization: A Study of Party Labour Relations in Zambia, Bergen, Norway, Christian Michelsen Institute, CMI Report, 1992 , pp. 6

Examines role of labour in the transition to multi-party democracy in 1991, and concludes that the trade union movement has remained autonomous from the state (despite efforts to incorporate it) and that this is the key reason why the unions led the transition.

Websites recommended

Economic Crisis and Political Realignment in Zambia Baltimore MD John Hopkins University Press, 1994
Trade Unions in Processes of Democratization: A Study of Party Labour Relations in Zambia Bergen, Norway Christian Michelsen Institute, CMI Report, 1992

Examines role of labour in the transition to multi-party democracy in 1991, and concludes that the trade union movement has remained autonomous from the state (despite efforts to incorporate it) and that this is the key reason why the unions led the transition.

See also:

E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements
Gifford, Paul, African Christianity: Its Public Role, (E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements)
E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews
, Conflict and Democracy in Africa, (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews), which includes a chapter on the ‘second elections’ in 1996.
E. I.2.1.a.i. - Malawi
van Donge, Jan Kamuzu’s Legacy: The democratization of Malawi, Vol. 94, issue 375, 1995 , pp. 227-257

Englund, Harri Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi, Uppsala, Nordic Africa Institute, 2002 , pp. 208 pb

This book explores how far the ending of one-man rule in 1994 had achieved wider economic, social and cultural changes and explores the continuing problems such as political intolerance and hate speech.  The contributors, mostly from Malawi, criticize both 'chameleon' political leaders and aid donors for supporting superficial democratization.
Nowack, Daniel Process Tracing the Term Limit Struggle in Malawi: The Role of International Democracy Promotion in Muluzi's Bid for a Third Term, Vol. 55, issue 3, 2021 , pp. 291-300

Nowack examines the struggle between 1999 and 2003 to prevent the President serving a third term contrary to the constitution. Drawing on newspaper reports and interviews he argues that a decline in party support and a strong civil society were key, conditions imposed by aid donors and international democracy promotion influenced both these internal factors.

Websites recommended

Democracy of Chameleons: Politics and Culture in the New Malawi Uppsala Nordic Africa Institute, 2002

This book explores how far the ending of one-man rule in 1994 had achieved wider economic, social and cultural changes and explores the continuing problems such as political intolerance and hate speech.  The contributors, mostly from Malawi, criticize both 'chameleon' political leaders and aid donors for supporting superficial democratization.
Kamuzu’s Legacy: The democratization of Malawi , 1995
Process Tracing the Term Limit Struggle in Malawi: The Role of International Democracy Promotion in Muluzi's Bid for a Third Term , 2021

Nowack examines the struggle between 1999 and 2003 to prevent the President serving a third term contrary to the constitution. Drawing on newspaper reports and interviews he argues that a decline in party support and a strong civil society were key, conditions imposed by aid donors and international democracy promotion influenced both these internal factors.

See also:

0. Not listed
Mchombo, Sam, Democratization in Malawi: Its roots and prospects
E. I.2.1.a.ii. Ghana and Nigeria: Constitutional Change but Leaders Remain in Power

These two former British colonies in West Africa had both engaged in forms of unarmed struggle under colonialism: Nigeria had a record of significant strikes and tax refusal, and the ‘positive action’ campaign in Ghana became a model of how to achieve independence through nonviolent struggle (see B). Ghana became independent in 1957 and Nigeria in 1960. By the end of the 1980s, however, both had experienced military coups and forms of military rule – in Nigeria the legacy of a bitter war for secession by Biafra 1967-1970, and the divisions between the Muslim North and the Christian South, created particular problems for political stability and democratization.
E. I.2.1.a.ii. - Ghana

By the end of the 1980s, the Rawlings government in Ghana was under increasing criticism from the Bar Association for its human rights record and at odds with the churches and the trade unions. The Movement for Freedom and Justice (a broad opposition coalition) was formed in August 1990 to press for democratic change. The regime tried to maintain control through constitutional reform and finally legalised political parties to contest presidential and parliamentary elections in November 1992. Rawlings was returned to power with 58.3% of the vote (despite opposition claims of rigging, Commonwealth observers validated the result). However, at least a regular electoral process had been established with the right of opposition parties to contest elections.

Nugent, Paul Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982-1994, London, Frances Pinter, 1996 , pp. 306

Oquaye, Mike Politics in Ghana, 1982-1992: Rawlings, Revolution and Populist Democracy, Accra, Tornado, 2004 , pp. 626

The author has been prominent in Ghanaian politics and a professor of political science at the University of Legon.
Panford, Kwamina Elections and Democratic Transition in Ghana: 1991-96, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 113-126

Websites recommended

Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982-1994 London Frances Pinter, 1996
Elections and Democratic Transition in Ghana: 1991-96 Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
Politics in Ghana, 1982-1992: Rawlings, Revolution and Populist Democracy Accra Tornado, 2004

The author has been prominent in Ghanaian politics and a professor of political science at the University of Legon.

See also:

E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements
Gifford, Paul, African Christianity: Its Public Role, (E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements), chapter on Ghana.
E. I.2.1.a.ii. - Nigeria

Despite an unusually independent press and a strong civil society, Nigeria’s transition to multi-party electoral democracy was effectively blocked in a period when many African countries were holding multi-party elections. General Babangida had ousted his military predecessor in 1985, promising a return to civilian rule, but preparations for a new constitution dragged on. The regime ensured that only two parties, which it created, could contest elections, and refused to release the results of the 1992 presidential election and sought support for Babangida to remain head of state. Widespread popular protest in the capital Lagos and in Yorubaland (a Yoruba politician appeared to have won the election according to unofficial results) included civil disobedience and riots. In this confused context the Minister of Defence, General Abacha, seized control of the government. Nigeria did not return to democratic rule until 1999.

Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria, ed. Beckett, Paul; Young, Crawford, Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 1997 , pp. 450

Multidisciplinary study by 13 Nigerian and 6 American political analysts of attempts at transition to democracy, including historical, social and economic as well as political factors.
Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, ed. Diamond, Larry; Kirk-Greene, Anthony; Oyediran, Oyeleye, Boulder CO, Lynne Rienner, 1997 , pp. 516

Comprehensive analysis of the political fault lines, corruption and repression of Nigerian politics, and the failure to achieve a transition to democracy, including the role of the military, constitutional formulas and electoral administration. Chapters on political parties, the press and ‘associational life’.
Edozie, Rita People Power and Democracy: The Popular Movement Against Military Despotism in Nigeria 1989-1999, Trenton NJ, Africa World Press, 2002 , pp. 205

Analyses critically the roles of several national pro-democracy groups in the 1990s, and their attempts to mobilize civil society to resist. Compares their strategies and activities and their role in promoting a democratic transition.
Ihonvbere, Julius Militarization and Perpetual Transition, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 59-76

The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, ed. Olukoshi, Adebayo, Portsmouth NH, Heinemann, 1993 , pp. 144

Includes assessments of the increasingly active role of civil society and relations with the state.
Osaghae, Eghosa Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London, Hurst, 1998 , pp. 342

Websites recommended

Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence London Hurst, 1998
Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria Rochester University of Rochester Press, 1997

Multidisciplinary study by 13 Nigerian and 6 American political analysts of attempts at transition to democracy, including historical, social and economic as well as political factors.
Militarization and Perpetual Transition Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
People Power and Democracy: The Popular Movement Against Military Despotism in Nigeria 1989-1999 Trenton NJ Africa World Press, 2002

Analyses critically the roles of several national pro-democracy groups in the 1990s, and their attempts to mobilize civil society to resist. Compares their strategies and activities and their role in promoting a democratic transition.
The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria Portsmouth NH Heinemann, 1993

Includes assessments of the increasingly active role of civil society and relations with the state.
Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida Boulder CO Lynne Rienner, 1997

Comprehensive analysis of the political fault lines, corruption and repression of Nigerian politics, and the failure to achieve a transition to democracy, including the role of the military, constitutional formulas and electoral administration. Chapters on political parties, the press and ‘associational life’.
E. I.2.1.a.iii. Kenya: Resistance to President Moi

When the founding father of Kenyan independence, Jomo Kenyatta, died in 1978, he was succeeded as President by Daniel Arap Moi, who at first initiated some reforms, but soon formalized one-party rule by the Kenyan African National Union (KANU) and became associated with corruption and ruthlessness against political opponents. By the late 1980s and early 1990s increasing disillusion with Moi brought growing resistance from Anglican, Protestant and Catholic churches, professional associations such as musicians, workers who defied the ban on strikes, and students. When prominent politicians called for reform they were detained in June 1990, and Foreign Minister Robert Ouko was murdered in suspicious circumstances. The opposition created a broad-based Forum for the Restoration of Democracy, and foreign aid donors brought pressure to bear for constitutional recognition of opposition parties. The resistance lost momentum, however, before presidential elections in 1992, and divided on ideological and ethnic lines, so that opposition parties fielded three separate candidates and allowed Moi to win with 36.4 per cent of the presidential vote.

Failure of newly-created (or recreated) political parties to coordinate their opposition to the ruling candidate and party, and problems arising from ethnic tensions, were not unique to Kenya. But the Kenyan case is of interest here both because of the significant resistance and because it has been treated as a case study of ‘failure’ of a nonviolent movement, see:

Gustafson, Lindsey Kenya: The Struggle to Create a Democracy, Vol. 2, 1995 , pp. 647-651

Murungi, Kiraitu President Moi and the Decline of Democracy in Kenya, Vol. 8, issue 4, 1991 , pp. 3-18

Press, Robert Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedom, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2006 , pp. 227

Primarily with reference to Kenya, discusses interplay of human rights advocacy and democratic resistance in authoritarian state. Articles by Press on nonviolent movements in Kenya, Liberia and Sierra Leone can be downloaded from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=1319605.
Sabar, Galia Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition 1963-1993, London, Frank Cass, 2002 , pp. 334

Explores role of Christianity in colonial and post-colonial society and shows the crucial role of the churches in promoting an alternative politics.
Throup, David; Hornsby, Charles Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta and Moi States and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election, Oxford, Nairobi and Athens OH, James Currey, EAEP and Ohio University Press, 1998 , pp. 660

Websites recommended

Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition 1963-1993 London Frank Cass, 2002

Explores role of Christianity in colonial and post-colonial society and shows the crucial role of the churches in promoting an alternative politics.
Kenya: The Struggle to Create a Democracy , 1995
Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta and Moi States and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election Oxford, Nairobi and Athens OH James Currey, EAEP and Ohio University Press, 1998
Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedom Aldershot Ashgate, 2006

Primarily with reference to Kenya, discusses interplay of human rights advocacy and democratic resistance in authoritarian state. Articles by Press on nonviolent movements in Kenya, Liberia and Sierra Leone can be downloaded from: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=1319605.
President Moi and the Decline of Democracy in Kenya , 1991

See also:

0. Not listed
Kanyinga, Karuti, Contestation over political space: The state and the demobilization of opposition parties
E. I.2.1.b. Movements for Multi-Party Democracy in Francophone Africa 1988-93

Many countries in French-speaking Africa were part of the movement across sub-Saharan Africa to oust long-standing corrupt and authoritarian rulers and to demand multi-party elections. Whereas movements in English-speaking countries demanded multi-party elections (which usually required formal constitutional amendment), opposition groups in Francophone Africa often focused their protests on an initial demand for an autonomous and ‘sovereign’ ‘national conference’, composed of representatives of all important social and political groups, with power to create a new constitution – a demand that echoed the calling of the Estates General at the beginning of the French Revolution. Multi-party elections in which the opposition could seek to overthrow the president and his party through the ballot box were a second stage in the process.

The way was led by Benin, where opposition groups succeeded in calling a national conference, creating an interim government and ousting the former ruler in elections. The movements for change in the People’s Republic of Congo and Niger were also (at least temporarily) successful. Oppositions in many other countries followed this model of transition, but with varying degrees of success. Three (Zaire, Togo and Gabon) achieved the holding a national conference, but did not change their rulers. Some others gained multi-party elections, but rulers blocked demands for a national conference. In the Central African Republic the President cancelled elections in October 1992 when it became obvious that he would lose, but was forced to complete the electoral process in 1993, when he was beaten in the first round. In a few cases the initiative for constitutional change came primarily from above. But in several other countries – for example the Ivory Coast and Cameroon – presidents managed to hold elections but to remain in power.

Much of the literature is in French. Specifically on the protests see:

But there are some useful English sources:

Political Reform in Francophone Africa, ed. Clark, John; Gardinier, David, Boulder CO, Westview Press, 1997 , pp. 354

Chapters on all the relevant countries, but focuses on elites, parties and institutions rather than popular movements.
Decalo, Samuel The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa, Vol. 91, issue 362 (January), 1992 , pp. 7-35

Comments on parallels with ex-Soviet bloc, noting that ‘the sudden coalescence of a “critical mass” of pro-democracy pressures in Africa’ was equally unexpected. (Decalo contributed the chapter on Benin in John F. Clark, David E. Gardinier, Political Reform in Francophone Africa (E. I.2.1.b. Movements for Multi-Party Democracy in Francophone Africa 1988-93) .)

Websites recommended

Political Reform in Francophone Africa Boulder CO Westview Press, 1997

Chapters on all the relevant countries, but focuses on elites, parties and institutions rather than popular movements.
The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratization in Africa , 1992

Comments on parallels with ex-Soviet bloc, noting that ‘the sudden coalescence of a “critical mass” of pro-democracy pressures in Africa’ was equally unexpected. (Decalo contributed the chapter on Benin in John F. Clark, David E. Gardinier, Political Reform in Francophone Africa (E. I.2.1.b. Movements for Multi-Party Democracy in Francophone Africa 1988-93) .)

See also:

E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews
, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty, (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews), for chapters on Francophone states.

The role of National Conferences in the transition to democracy has been analysed in several articles. Conferences were held in: Benin, Congo, Gabon, Zaire, Togo, Niger and Chad. See:

Begins with the Benin Conference in February 1990.

Two articles compare the success in Benin with the failure in Togo, where General Eyadema managed to retain control of the process, discussing broader reasons for the outcomes:

Stresses the role of voluntary associations in Benin.
E. I.2.1.b.i. Cameroon

The villes mortes (ghost towns) movement in Cameroon was particularly impressive, although the opposition failed to win the elections it had demanded, The two-year movement looked likely to defeat President Paul Biya, but in the October 1992 elections the opposition was divided between two political parties, and electoral fraud gained Biya a narrow majority (40%) over the Social Democratic Front (37%). This struggle is also better covered in English than many movements in Francophone states.

Gros, Jean-Germain The Hard Lessons of Cameroon, Vol. 6, issue 3 (July), 1995 , pp. 112-127

Includes comments on the role of the French government in supporting Biya.
Mentan, Tatah Cameroon: A flawed transition to democracy, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 41-57

Ngwane, Mwalimu The Power in the Writer: Collected essays on Culture, Democracy and Development in Africa, Bamenda and Oxford, Langaa and African Books Collective, 2008 , pp. 196

Chapter 14, pp. 81-95, specifically discusses the electoral performance of the opposition and criticises its lack of internal democracy.
Nkwi, Walter The Dilemma of Civil Society in Cameroon since 1990: Which Way Forward?, In Walter Gam Nkwi, Voicing the Voiceless: Contributions to Closing Gaps in Cameroon History, 1958-2009, Bamenda, Langaa, 2010 , pp. 200 , pp. 137-149

Takougang, Joseph Africa State and Society in the 1990s: Cameroon’s Political Crossroads, Boulder CO, Westview Press, 1998 , pp. 312

See also: Joseph Takougang, John Mukum Mbaku, The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon Under Paul Biya, Trenton NJ, Africa World Press, 2004 , pp. 563 .

Websites recommended

Africa State and Society in the 1990s: Cameroon’s Political Crossroads Boulder CO Westview Press, 1998

See also: Joseph Takougang, John Mukum Mbaku, The Leadership Challenge in Africa: Cameroon Under Paul Biya, Trenton NJ, Africa World Press, 2004 , pp. 563 .
Cameroon: A flawed transition to democracy Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
The Dilemma of Civil Society in Cameroon since 1990: Which Way Forward? Bamenda Langaa, 2010
The Hard Lessons of Cameroon , 1995

Includes comments on the role of the French government in supporting Biya.
The Power in the Writer: Collected essays on Culture, Democracy and Development in Africa Bamenda and Oxford Langaa and African Books Collective, 2008

Chapter 14, pp. 81-95, specifically discusses the electoral performance of the opposition and criticises its lack of internal democracy.

See also:

E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements
Gifford, Paul, African Christianity: Its Public Role, (E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements), case study of Cameroon.
A. 1.c. Small Scale, Hidden, Indirect and 'Everyday' Resistance
Roitman, Janet, Fiscal Disobedience: An Anthropology of Economic Regulation in Central Africa, (A. 1.c. Small Scale, Hidden, Indirect and 'Everyday' Resistance), chapters 1 and 2.