Volume One -> E. I. Africa - Sub-Saharan -> E. I.2. Resisting Repressive and Authoritarian Regimes -> E. I.2.1. Popular Movements for Multiparty Democracy: 1988-1992 -> E. I.2.1.a. Movements for Multi-Party Democracy in English-Speaking Countries -> E. I.2.1.a.ii. Ghana and Nigeria: Constitutional Change but Leaders Remain in Power
E. I.2.1.a.ii. - Ghana

By the end of the 1980s, the Rawlings government in Ghana was under increasing criticism from the Bar Association for its human rights record and at odds with the churches and the trade unions. The Movement for Freedom and Justice (a broad opposition coalition) was formed in August 1990 to press for democratic change. The regime tried to maintain control through constitutional reform and finally legalised political parties to contest presidential and parliamentary elections in November 1992. Rawlings was returned to power with 58.3% of the vote (despite opposition claims of rigging, Commonwealth observers validated the result). However, at least a regular electoral process had been established with the right of opposition parties to contest elections.

Nugent, Paul Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982-1994, London, Frances Pinter, 1996 , pp. 306

Oquaye, Mike Politics in Ghana, 1982-1992: Rawlings, Revolution and Populist Democracy, Accra, Tornado, 2004 , pp. 626

The author has been prominent in Ghanaian politics and a professor of political science at the University of Legon.
Panford, Kwamina Elections and Democratic Transition in Ghana: 1991-96, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 113-126

Websites recommended

Big Men, Small Boys and Politics in Ghana: Power, Ideology and the Burden of History, 1982-1994 London Frances Pinter, 1996
Elections and Democratic Transition in Ghana: 1991-96 Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
Politics in Ghana, 1982-1992: Rawlings, Revolution and Populist Democracy Accra Tornado, 2004

The author has been prominent in Ghanaian politics and a professor of political science at the University of Legon.

See also:

E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements
Gifford, Paul, African Christianity: Its Public Role, (E. I.2.1.ii. Organizations and Movements), chapter on Ghana.
E. I.2.1.a.ii. - Nigeria

Despite an unusually independent press and a strong civil society, Nigeria’s transition to multi-party electoral democracy was effectively blocked in a period when many African countries were holding multi-party elections. General Babangida had ousted his military predecessor in 1985, promising a return to civilian rule, but preparations for a new constitution dragged on. The regime ensured that only two parties, which it created, could contest elections, and refused to release the results of the 1992 presidential election and sought support for Babangida to remain head of state. Widespread popular protest in the capital Lagos and in Yorubaland (a Yoruba politician appeared to have won the election according to unofficial results) included civil disobedience and riots. In this confused context the Minister of Defence, General Abacha, seized control of the government. Nigeria did not return to democratic rule until 1999.

Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria, ed. Beckett, Paul; Young, Crawford, Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 1997 , pp. 450

Multidisciplinary study by 13 Nigerian and 6 American political analysts of attempts at transition to democracy, including historical, social and economic as well as political factors.
Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, ed. Diamond, Larry; Kirk-Greene, Anthony; Oyediran, Oyeleye, Boulder CO, Lynne Rienner, 1997 , pp. 516

Comprehensive analysis of the political fault lines, corruption and repression of Nigerian politics, and the failure to achieve a transition to democracy, including the role of the military, constitutional formulas and electoral administration. Chapters on political parties, the press and ‘associational life’.
Edozie, Rita People Power and Democracy: The Popular Movement Against Military Despotism in Nigeria 1989-1999, Trenton NJ, Africa World Press, 2002 , pp. 205

Analyses critically the roles of several national pro-democracy groups in the 1990s, and their attempts to mobilize civil society to resist. Compares their strategies and activities and their role in promoting a democratic transition.
Ihonvbere, Julius Militarization and Perpetual Transition, In Jean-Germain Gros, Democratization in Late Twentieth Century Africa: Coping with Uncertainty (E. I.2.1.i. General Overviews) Westport CT and London, Greenwood Press, 1998 , pp. 59-76

The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria, ed. Olukoshi, Adebayo, Portsmouth NH, Heinemann, 1993 , pp. 144

Includes assessments of the increasingly active role of civil society and relations with the state.
Osaghae, Eghosa Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, London, Hurst, 1998 , pp. 342

Websites recommended

Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence London Hurst, 1998
Dilemmas of Democracy in Nigeria Rochester University of Rochester Press, 1997

Multidisciplinary study by 13 Nigerian and 6 American political analysts of attempts at transition to democracy, including historical, social and economic as well as political factors.
Militarization and Perpetual Transition Westport CT and London Greenwood Press, 1998
People Power and Democracy: The Popular Movement Against Military Despotism in Nigeria 1989-1999 Trenton NJ Africa World Press, 2002

Analyses critically the roles of several national pro-democracy groups in the 1990s, and their attempts to mobilize civil society to resist. Compares their strategies and activities and their role in promoting a democratic transition.
The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Nigeria Portsmouth NH Heinemann, 1993

Includes assessments of the increasingly active role of civil society and relations with the state.
Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida Boulder CO Lynne Rienner, 1997

Comprehensive analysis of the political fault lines, corruption and repression of Nigerian politics, and the failure to achieve a transition to democracy, including the role of the military, constitutional formulas and electoral administration. Chapters on political parties, the press and ‘associational life’.