E. V.B.c. Nonviolent Action within Repression and War: Syria

The popular demonstrations that began in Syria in March 2011 were initially consciously peaceful and were also both persistent and brave in the face of the immediately brutal response of the Assad regime. Assad's speech to the Syrian parliament in which he refused to consider any possible reforms in response to the demonstrations, and the decision by some sections of the regular army to defect to support the protesters, meant however that by 2012 civil resistance was overtaken by a civil war. Assad managed to maintain support from key Muslim minorities and Christians, who had prospered under the regime, as well as from urban elites who feared the destabilizing effects of an uprising.  He also enjoyed active military support from Iran and Hezbollah fighters. The armed resistance was over time increasingly dominated by extremist Sunni groups including Al Qaeda (Assad had deliberately released members of these groups from prison in 2011), and later included Islamic State. This gave a degree of credibility to Assad's claim that the opposition was entirely composed of these terrorist Islamist groups, and by 2017, after the fall of Aleppo, it had become largely true. The moderate opposition to Assad sought, help from the US and European governments, and did in the early years get political backing for their goals. But UN sponsored peace talks in Geneva broke down in early 2014.

President Obama decided not to intervene militarily after there was evidence in August 2013 that the regime had used chemical weapons against civilians in rebel areas, although he had earlier cited use of such weapons as a 'red line'.  He was partly influenced by a vote in the British Parliament against military action over this issue. However, western forces did later use air strikes against IS in Syria as well as Iraq. Vladimir Putin, who had supported Assad at the UN, decided in 2015 to commit Russian military forces to help Assad win, and to extend Russian influence in the Middle East. Turkey also became militarily involved in Syrian territory in October 2019, after President Trump decided to withdraw US troops from Kurdish areas - despite the role of Kurdish fighters (including women) in defeating the threat from ISIS. The Turkish government, involved in a long struggle with Kurds inside Turkey, seized the opportunity to undermine the political and military role Kurds had assumed by creating the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria - better known as Rojava. Turkish troops not only attacked and occupied parts of Kurdish territory (Russian troops controlled other parts), but also created a large buffer zone by its border with the aim of expelling Kurds from it.

The scale of armed force used in Syria since 2012 has destroyed numerous homes, schools and hospitals, towns and cities, most notably the ancient city of Aleppo, and after 10 years of war driven an estimated 12 million out of their homes and millions to seek refuge in neighbouring countries (many in Turkey) or in Europe. Those who remained in rebel territory were vulnerable to numerous forms of military attack, hunger and illness, and sometimes subjected to draconian political control - as in areas held by ISIS.  Both the Assad regime and Russian forces appear to have been responsible for bombing of civilians, but journalists have also found evidence of the damage done to non-combatants by western bombing against ISIS. 

The scope for nonviolent forms of resistance has therefore been severely limited.  However, in the early years in the areas held by the resistance there was an upsurge in communal activism, artistic creativity and constructive attempts to promote welfare and education, and assert new freedoms such as women's rights.  Active civil resistance against both the Assad regime and ISIS has partly taken the form of citizen journalism (getting news to the outside world). The other major role for peaceful activists in rebel held areas has been to organize medical and other aid to Syrians suffering the worst effects of the war. Informing the outside world and saving victims of military attacks have been combined by the organization the White Helmets, who film themselves rescuing those injured and have been well reported in the west. They have been fiercely attacked by both the Assad regime and the Russian government for allegedly faking their filmed evidence, or for links with an extremist group fighting in Syria (the Al-Nusra Front), or for acting on behalf of western governments - criticisms which some in western countries have endorsed.  The role of communal initiative and peaceful resistance in Syria since 2012, including the White Helmets, and resistance to ISIS, are covered in some references below. (There are also some references to nonviolent resistance to ISIS under Vol.1.A.1.b.)